Тема Чтение (Изучающее чтение с элементами аннотирования)
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Human rights
1. Most of the law in the world is made by governments for their own people. But human rights are independent of any political divisions. They are basic minimum standards of freedom and security for all people. When governments do not meet these standards, they are criticized by their own citizens and even by foreign governments. Sometimes some countries impose economic sanction against those countries where human rights are violated. For example, many countries have limited trade to South Africa because of policy of apartheid.
2. As a rule, human rights are violated when governments violate their own constitutions, and very often their policies make citizens to escape to another country. But legally, most countries of the world have signed international agreements concerning the treatment of individuals. The most important agreement is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) adopted by UN General Assembly in 1948. Article 1 of UDHR declares that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights, and Article 2 states that it does not depend upon race, color, sex, language, religion or any other difference among people.
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The Universal Declaration of Human Rights proclaims … - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
World Bank
1. World Bank or International Bank for Reconstruction and Development is a multinational institution set up in 1947 to provide economic aid to member countries – mainly developing countries – to strengthen their economics. The Bank has supported a wide range of long-term investments including infrastructure projects such as roads, telecommunications and electricity supply; agriculture and industrial projects including the establishment of new industries, as well as social, training and educational programmes.
2. The Bank's funds come largely from the developed countries, but it also raises money on international capital markets. The Bank operates according to 'business principles' lending at commercial rates of interest only to those governments it feels are capable of servicing and repaying their debts.
3. In 1960, however, it established an affiliate agency, the International Development Association, to provide low-interest loans to its poorer members. Another affiliate of the World Bank is the International Finance Corporation which can invest directly in companies by acquiring shares.
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World Bank’s funds come from … - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
The state
1. The state has an important part to play in making and enforcing law. But what is a state? It is a political unit with a territory that the international community treats as independent, for example the United Kingdom, Barbados or Japan. Law settles how the state is to be governed (its constitution), what duties it owes its citizens, and what duties they owe to one another and to it. The law of the state consists of a system of government, together with a framework for making the life of citizens more secure and for enabling them to flourish.
2. Since each state has its own system of law, there are many legal systems: the law of the United Kingdom, Barbados, Japan, etc. The laws of states differ a bit but also have much in common. Legal systems are called systems because in each state or part of a state with its own laws there are official bodies concerned with the whole of its law. These bodies – the branches of the state – are the legislature, which makes laws, the executive government, which puts laws into effect, and the judges, who decide disputes about the law. These branches of government try to see that the laws do not conflict with one another. In other words, they treat the laws as pans of a system that hangs together.
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The laws of the states all over the world … - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
Charter schools of the USA
1. Charter schools are public schools that are independent of any local school district. National surveys of charter school have found high levels of satisfaction among parents, pupils and teachers associated with then. Charter schools were especially well received by poor and minority families.
2. Charter school is a movement toward school reform that focuses on improving education, pupil autonomy and choice. A charter school may be a separate school with separate funding, or it can be a school within a school. Typically, most new charter schools around the country are small.
3. The quality is measured by test scores. If the quality is good, the schools enjoy success. If it is not good, they'll fail and lose their financing – this is a powerful motive to offer a high-quality program. Charter schools are usually formed by a group of teachers, parents, and/or community leaders who want to make contributions to education reform.
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Law
1. Law in common parlance means a rule which (unlike a rule of ethics) is capable of enforcement through institutions. The study of law crosses the boundaries between the social sciences and humanities, depending on one's view of research into its objectives and effects. Law is not always enforceable, especially in the international relations context. It has been defined as a «system of rules», as an «interpretive concept» to achieve justice, as an «authority» to mediate people's interests, and even as "the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction".
2. However one likes to think of law, it is a completely central social institution. Legal policy incorporates the practical manifestation of thinking from almost every social sciences and humanity. Laws are politics, because politicians create them. Law is philosophy, because moral and ethical persuasions shape their ideas.
3. Law tells many of history's stories, because statutes, case law and codifications build up over time. And law is economics, because any rule about contract, tort, property law, labour law, company law and many more can have long lasting effects on the distribution of wealth.
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Privatization
1. Privatization is the process by which the production of goods or services is removed from the government sector of the economy. This has been done in a variety of ways, ranging from the public sale of shares in a previously state-owned enterprise to the use of private businesses to perform government work under contract.
2. The leader in this innovative strategy was the Thatcher government of Great Britain from 1979 to 1990. Previous governments had tried limited denationalization, which is the restoration of nationalized enterprises to their previous owners, but with limited success. Privatization involved totally new owners. In some cases the state enterprises that were «privatized» had never been in the private sector.
3. Governments all over the world were confronted in the seventies by the problems inherent in state ownership. Because state-owned companies have no profit motive, they lack the incentive that private companies have to produce goods that consumers want and to do so at low cost. An additional problem is that even if they want to satisfy consumer demands, they have no way of knowing what consumers want, because consumers indicate their preferences most clearly by their purchases.
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The ways of privatization are … - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Hyperinflation
1. Inflation is a sustained increase in the aggregate price level. Economists generally reserve the term hyperinflation to describe episodes where the monthly inflation rate is greater than 50 per cent.
2. Hyperinflations are largely a twentieth-century phenomenon. The most widely studied hyperinflation occurred in Germany after World War I. The ratio of the German price index in November 1923 to the price index in August 1922 – just fifteen months earlier – was 1.02 × 1010. This huge number amounts to a monthly inflation rate of 322 per cent.
3. Hyperinflations are caused by extremely rapid growth in the supply of «paper» money. They occur when the monetary and fiscal authorities of a nation regularly issue large quantities of money to pay for a large stream of government expenditures. In effect, inflation is a form of taxation where the government gains at the expense of those who hold money whose value is declining. Hyperinflations are, therefore, very large taxation schemes.
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The term hyperinflation is used when … - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Teaching
1. Good teaching is not a matter of techniques or methods, for, as curriculum is not education, so method is not teaching. Research indicates that good teachers cannot be differentiated on the basis of «teaching methods». The method is inseparable from the person of the teacher; in fact, the person of the teacher is more important than the method.
2. The good teacher is not an instructor, who simply provides information, facts and knowledge but a facilitator of learning for the student. Good teachers are not those who are simply experts in subject matter, or experts in teaching methods, or curriculum experts, or who utilize the most resources, such as audiovisual aids.
3. The best teacher is one who, through establishing a personal relationship, frees the student to learn. Learning can only take place if the student and the teacher can create the conditions for learning. The atmosphere created by a good interpersonal relationship is the major condition for learning.
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Linguistics
1. Linguistics investigates the cognitive and social aspects of human language. The field is divided into areas that focus on aspects of the linguistic signal, such as syntax, semantics, morphology, phonetics and phonology; however, work in areas like evolutionary linguistics and psycholinguistics cut across these divisions.
2. The majority of modern research in linguistics takes a predominantly synchronic perspective (focusing on language at a particular point in time), and a great deal of it aims at formulating theories of the cognitive processing of language. However, language does not exist in a vacuum, or only in the brain, and approaches like contact linguistics, creole studies, discourse analysis, social interactional linguistics, and sociolinguistics explore language in its social context.
3. Sociolinguistics often makes use of traditional quantitative analysis and statistics in investigating the frequency of features, while some disciplines, like contact linguistics, focus on qualitative analysis. Ferdinand Saussure is considered the father of modern linguistics.
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Geography
1. Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main subfields: human geography and physical geography. The former focuses largely on the built environment and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. The latter examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation and life, soil, water and landforms are produced and interact. As a result of the two subfields using different approaches a third field has emerged, which is environmental geography.
2. Geographers attempt to understand the earth in terms of physical and spatial relationships. The first geographers focused on the science of mapmaking and finding ways to precisely project the surface of the earth. In this sense, geography bridges some gaps between the natural sciences and social sciences. Historical geography is often taught in a college in a unified Department of Geography.
3. Modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline, closely related to GISc, that seeks to understand humanity and its natural environment. Practitioners of geography use many technologies and methods to collect data such as GIS, remote sensing, aerial photography, statistics, and global positioning systems (GPS).
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Training in Britain
1. Not all British students study full time at university or college. Many people combine their studies with work. Some companies release their staff for training one or two days a week or two month a year. Large companies often have their own in-house training schemes.
2. The British government is very enthusiastic about such training schemes, in particular because so few people go to university. Only 25 per cent of the student population goes on to higher education.
3. If you unemployed, there are two forms of training schemes: employment training for people who have been out of work for a long time and Youth Training Schemes for school-leavers who cannot find a job.
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To provide British people with training …