Тема Изучающее чтение с выделением главных компонентов содержания текста
- Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Enforcing the law
1. Governments have many ways to be sure that citizens obey the law. They explain to the public what the law is and try to provide social support for law and order. They use police forces to investigate crimes and catch criminals. They use courts to complete the investigation of criminal and civil offences and to pass sentences to punish the guilty and deter others. And they try to re-educate and reform people who have broken the law. Which of these is most effective in enforcing the law?
2. The laws of all countries are in written records – the legal codes of countries, etc. Many people do not know where to find these records. But ignorance of the law is almost never a defence for breaking it. Governments usually expect citizens to know the laws. However, there are many laws, such as those prohibiting theft, assault and dangerous driving, which simply reflect social and moral attitudes to everyday behavior. In such cases a person knows he is breaking the law, even if he doesn't know exactly which law it is.
Определите основную идею текста. - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
The collaborative mode of teaching
1. Teachers display a wide variety of behaviors in the classroom. Despite the existence of divergent teaching styles, a significantly large portion of the adult education literature supports the collaborative mode as the most effective and appropriate style for teaching adults. Strong arguments can be found in the literature to support the concepts that the curriculum should be learner-centered, learning activities should be related to the learner's experiences, adults are self-directed, the learner should be involved in entrance and exit assessments, adults are problem-centered, and the teacher should function as a facilitator.
2. The collaborative mode is a process-oriented approach to teaching. The emphasis is upon what the learner is doing. The teacher's primary task is to organize and maintain an environment which facilitates student learning. In this way adult education is a cooperative venture in which the learner is a full partner. The curriculum is built around the particular problems and life situations of the learners rather than around a predetermined set of subjects for the classification of knowledge. Its content is problem-centered with subjects used as examples and vehicles of learning.
3. The collaborative mode depends on active student participation. The learner is involved in needs diagnosis, goals formation, and outcomes evaluation. To achieve this, the student's experiences are utilized. Learning activities are related to life experiences to help students become more aware of significant events in their lives. Experiences serve as a constantly growing resource for learning and can stimulate adult engagement in learning.
Основной идеей текста является … - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
La micro-électronique
1. La micro-électronique est une spécialité du domaine de l'électronique.Tel que son nom le suggère, la micro-électronique s'intéresse à l'étude et à la fabrication de composants électroniques à l'échelle micrométrique.Ces composants sont fabriqués à partir de matériaux semi-conducteurs (comme le Silicium) au moyen de diverses technologies dont la photolithographie. Cette technologie permet l'intégration de nombreuses fonctions électroniques sur un même morceau de Silicium (ou autre semi-conducteur) et donc à un prix plus bas. Les circuits ainsi réalisés sont appelés puces ou circuits intégrés. Ils peuvent être standards ou spécifiques à une application (ils sont alors nommés "ASIC" : Application Specific Integrated Circuit). Tous les composants électroniques discrets : les transistors, les condensateurs, les inductances, les résistances, les diodes et, bien sûr, les isolants et les conducteurs ont leur équivalent en micro-électronique
2. Avec l'évolution des techniques de fabrication, la taille des composants continue de décroître. Aujourd'hui des circuits en technologie 40nm sont commercialisés largement. A l'échelle sub-micronique, certains effets physiques parasites, sans importance à plus grande échelle, deviennent prépondérants. Les temps de propagation des signaux sont essentiellement dus aux capacités parasites d'inter-connexion des éléments actifs et non au délai de traversée de ces éléments.
3. À cela s'ajoute un problème de diaphonie entre les pistes métalliques propageant les signaux. Le bruit en 1/f devient également important lorsqu'on travaille avec des transistors de petite taille du fait du manque de statistique. Enfin, le transport des électrons dans le transistor n'obéit plus aux mêmes lois. Ceux-ci ont plus de mal à être thermalisés sur la faible distance du canal. On parle alors d'électrons chauds.
4. L'objectif de l'ingénierie micro-électronique est d'utiliser des méthodes de conception pour limiter ces effets tout en améliorant la taille, la vitesse, la consommation électrique et le coût des composants à semi-conducteur.
http://fr.wikipedia.org/
Основной идеей текста является … - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
Composite Materials
1. Among the oldest and newest of structural materials are composite materials. It was discovered many years ago that two or more materials could be used together as one. Later it was proved that such a combination often behaved better than each material alone. Following this principle, clay and straw were combined to make bricks. For centuries composite materials remained virtually untapped. Only then monolithic materials, such as iron, copper were served for needs of an advancing technology. Recently it was a development of technology with coming of reinforced concrete, linoleum, plasterboard and plywood panels.
2. During the 1930s and 1940s light-weight honeycomb structures, machine parts made from compressed metal powders and plastic reinforced with glass fibers became commercial realities. These developments marked the beginning of the modern era of composite engineering materials. It was mentioned growing and using composite materials. Nevertheless, the emergence of a strict discipline and technology of composite materials is barely 20 years old.
3. There are two major reasons for the current interest in composite materials. The first is the demand for materials that will outperform the traditional monolithic materials. The second and more important in the long run, is that composites offer engineers the opportunity to design totally new materials, with the precise combination of properties needed for a specific task. Although new composites are usually more costly than conventional materials, they can be used more sparingly, because of their superior qualities.
Определите основную идею текста. - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
The Purpose of Education
1. Some educational theorists believe that education should serve the needs of the individual. The second opinion on the purpose of education is that education should serve the needs of the society. In industrialized nations it is common for both of these goals to be held but for different classes of the population.
2. For the elite, the needs of the individual tend to prevail, and thus upper-class schooling often tolerates diversity and encourages idiosyncrasy. For the masses, the needs of society tend to dominate, and schooling usually serves to prepare children to become obedient, well-drilled, uncomplaining workers in industry and agriculture.
3. In France and Germany, the primary purpose of education is intellectual development. In England, the primary purpose of education is character building. In Roman Catholic and Communist countries, moral or religious training is usually the primary purpose of education. Hence, every subject is imbued with religious or ideological content, and there is a constant attempt to draw moral lessons from educational material. In the United States, where large-scale immigration once brought the fear of social disintegration, preparation for citizenship and development of national consciousness have tended to be emphasized. Even today, some rituals, such as displaying American flags here there and everywhere and pledging allegiance to the flag of the United States of America at the beginning of the school day, distinguish American schools from those in most other countries.
Определите основную идею текста. - Определите основную идею текста
- Определите основную идею текста
- Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
Medicine on the Internet
1. On the whole, the Internet has had a very positive effect on the practice of medicine; a wide range of information is available to physicians and patients through personal computers almost instantaneously at any time and from anywhere in the world. This medium holds enormous potential for delivering up-to-date information, practice guidelines, journal contents, textbooks, and direct communications with other physicians and specialists, thereby expanding the depth and breadth of information available to the physician about the diagnosis and care of patients.
2. Most medical journals are now accessible online, providing rapid and comprehensive sources of information. This medium also serves to lessen the information gap felt by physicians and health care providers in remote areas of the world by bringing them into direct and instant contact with the latest developments in medical care.
3. Patients, too, are turning to the Internet in increasing numbers to acquire information about their illnesses and therapies and to join Internet-based support groups. Physicians are increasingly faced with the prospect of dealing with patients who arrive with sophisticated information about their illness. In this regard, physicians are challenged in a positive way to keep themselves abreast of the latest relevant information while serving as an «editor» for the patients as they navigate through this seemingly endless source of information.
4. A critically important caveat is that virtually anything can be published on the Internet, with easy circumvention of the peer-review process that is an essential feature of quality publications. Physicians or patients who search the Internet for medical information must be aware of this danger. Notwithstanding this limitation, appropriate use of the Internet is revolutionizing information access for physicians and patients and in this regard is a great benefit that was not available to our predecessors.
Определите основную идею текста. - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
The Best Building Materials
1. Building materials are very important in the construction. But it is more important for any designer to select and adapt such building materials of construction that will give the most effective result by the most economical means. In this choice of materials for any work of constructions many factors must be considered by the civil engineer. These factors include availability, cost, physical properties of materials and others.
2. Practically, all buildings materials have their advantages and disadvantages. That's why some materials are used most widely in building construction for the purpose of binding together masonry units. Among them are lime, gypsum and cement.
3. Last material forms very important elements in all masonry structures, such as stone, a brick. Since the time of its introduction a gradual improvement of Portland cement quality has led to the elaboration of rapid hardening Portland cement, or «high early strength». Later developments include low heat and sulphateresisting cements. The scope for such purpose-made cements has led to the development of an increasing variety such as high alumina cement, blast-furnace slag. They may be also white and coloured cements.
Определите основную идею текста. - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Criminal Procedure
1. Criminal procedure, also called the criminal process, is the mechanism through which crimes are investigated, the guilt of criminals adjudicated, and punishment imposed. Criminal procedure makes the criminal law work. Criminal law defines what conduct is criminal and prescribes the punishment for criminal conduct. Criminal procedure aims to make sure that criminal sanctions are applied only to those who are guilty, and only through procedures that are recognized as fair. One goal of the criminal process is to punish the guilty, but other goals are to protect the innocent and to ensure that even the guilty are protected from abuse by the government.
2. The stages in criminal procedure are investigating, prosecuting, trying, deciding guilt, sentencing and carrying out the sentence. Different bodies can be given one of these jobs. For example, the police can be in charge of investigating the crime; a prosecution service of prosecuting; the judges of presiding over the trial; a jury of deciding whether to convict; an appeal court of settling whether the trial was fair; a prison service of carrying out the sentence if the suspect is convicted and sentenced to prison.
3. No one authority (police, prosecution, judge, jury, prison service) should have too much power. State powers should be sliced up, and the slices should be able to keep a check on one another. The police will not be able to prosecute unless they can persuade the prosecution service that there is a strong case. The judge will if necessary rule at the trial that the prosecution has not produced enough evidence. If the jury think the judge has shown bias during the trial they will probably acquit the suspect even though they might otherwise convicted him. If the suspect is convicted but thinks the procedure has been unfair he can persuade the government to advise the head of state to pardon him.
Определите основную идею текста. - Определите основную идею текста
- Определите основную идею текста
- Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Grouping Students for Instruction
1. Some educational theorists believe that students should be grouped together with similar students for instruction. Other educational theorists believe that instructional groups should be made deliberately diverse. The criteria, employed for differentiating students, include chronological age, mental age, IQ, skin colour, sex, social class, geographical location, and parental income.
2. A mental age is a measure of someone’s ability to think, obtained by comparing someone’s ability with the average ability of children at various ages, for example, a 25-year-old man with a mental age of seven. An IQ is someone’s level of intelligence, measured by a special test, with 100 being the average result, for example, an IQ of 130.
An individual’s intelligence quotient is his mental age, as shown by intelligence tests, multiplied by 100 and divided by his chronological age. Such criteria as mental age and IQ often have the effect of separating rich from poor or elites from cultural minorities because of the cultural content of the tests used.
3. Arguments in favour of homogeneous grouping tend to emphasize speed and efficiency in instruction and learning. Heterogeneous grouping is characterized by lack of racial discrimination, sex discrimination, and discrimination against students with low IQ or with low income. Arguments for heterogeneous grouping tend to emphasize tolerance towards each other and the importance of mutual understanding.
Определите основную идею текста. - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Crop alteration and biotechnology
1. Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of years, since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans, for example, larger fruits or seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests.
2. Crop breeding includes techniques such as plant selection with desirable traits, self-pollination and cross-pollination, and molecular techniques that genetically modify the organism. Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and drought tolerance, eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants.
3. Careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. The green revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to increase yield many folds by creating «high-yielding varieties». For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the USA have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Variations in yields are due mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techniques.
Определите основную идею текста. - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Regenerative medicine
1. Regenerative medicine is the «process of replacing or regenerating human cells, tissues or organs to restore or establish normal function». This field holds the promise of regenerating damaged tissues and organs in the body by replacing damaged tissue and/or by stimulating the body's own repair mechanisms to heal previously irreparable tissues or organs.
2. Regenerative medicine empowers scientists to grow tissues and organs in the laboratory and safely implant them when the body cannot heal itself. Importantly, regenerative medicine has the potential to solve the problem of the shortage of organs available for donation compared to the number of patients that require life-saving organ transplantation.
3. Widely attributed to having first been coined by William Haseltine (founder of Human Genome Sciences), the term «Regenerative Medicine» was first found in a 1992 article on hospital administration by Leland Kaiser. Kaiser’s paper closes with a series of short paragraphs on future technologies that will impact hospitals. One such paragraph had «Regenerative Medicine» as a bold print title and went on to state, «A new branch of medicine will develop that attempts to change the course of chronic disease and in many instances will regenerate tired and failing organ systems».
4. Regenerative Medicine refers to a group of biomedical approaches to clinical therapies that may involve the use of stem cells. Examples include the injection of stem cells or progenitor cells (cell therapies); the induction of regeneration by biologically active molecules administered alone or as a secretion by infused cells (immunomodulation therapy); and transplantation of in vitro grown organs and tissues.
Основной идеей текста является … - Определите основную идею текста
- Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
Mass communication
1. Mass communication may be defined simply as messages directed at masses, or great numbers, of people. There are features of mass communication, however, that help to set it apart from other communication. Mass communication messages are prepared by institutions or other groups of people. A local television evening news program, for example, involves the three or four people who are seen at the news desk, but it also involves many people who are never seen on camera—camera operators, engineers, business managers, and many others.
2. Mass communication is also directed to a relatively large and anonymous audience—“to whom it may concern.” The message must appeal to a large number of people, or those producing it will not remain in business. Finally, the source of the message is remote—separated from the audience by time or space. As a consequence, those being addressed do not feel the same need to pay careful attention as do those in the company of the message source. For example, television viewers generally feel free to talk to each other, leave the room to get a snack, change channels, or fall asleep.
3. The fact that mass communication is a business has important implications. The mass media are in competition with each other for sales dollars, advertising revenue, or both. With advances in technology the number of alternatives is increasing. People have a greater variety of communication products from which to choose. Cable television, videotapes, and pay television systems, for instance, offer an increasing number of options to television viewers.
4. As some people turn away from regular network and local-station programming, advertisers may be unwilling to pay the prices asked for advertising time. In the past, magazine publishers, film producers, and radio stations found it necessary to reach out for specific audiences. It has been suggested that the general mass audience is disappearing in favor of a number of smaller, more limited mass audiences.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)
Определите основную идею текста - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Mangroves
1. Mangroves are the characteristic littoral plant formations of tropical and subtropical sheltered coastlines. Generally speaking, mangroves are trees and shrubs growing below the high-water level of spring tides. Their root systems are thus regularly inundated with saline water, even though it may be diluted due to freshwater surface run-offs and only flooded once or twice a year. Mangroves depend on terrestrial and tidal waters for their nourishment, and on coastal soils and silt deposits from upland erosion as substrate for support.
2. Mangroves are among the most productive terrestrial ecosystems and are a natural, renewable resource. However, the world's mangroves are beleaguered. Mangroves are losing their habitats as rivers are dammed, their waters diverted and the intertidal zone extensively developed for agriculture or aquaculture and generally dried up.
3. The depletion of mangroves is a cause of serious environmental and economic concern to many developing countries. This stems from the fact that at the interface between the sea and the land, mangroves play a pivotal role in moderating monsoonal tidal floods and in coastal protection. The continuing degradation and depletion of this vital resource will reduce not only terrestrial and aquatic production and wildlife habitats, but more importantly, the environmental stability of coastal forests that provide protection to inland agricultural crops and villages will become seriously impaired.
Определите основную идею текста. - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
A stroke
1. A stroke, or cerebrovascular accident (CVA), is the rapid loss of brain function due to disturbance in the blood supply to the brain. This can be due to ischemia caused by blockage (thrombosis, arterial embolism), or a hemorrhage. As a result, the affected area of the brain cannot function, which might result in an inability to move one or more limbs on one side of the body, inability to understand or formulate speech, or an inability to see one side of the visual field.
2. A stroke is a medical emergency and can cause permanent neurological damage and death. Risk factors for stroke include old age, high blood pressure, previous stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA), diabetes, high cholesterol, tobacco smoking and atrial fibrillation. High blood pressure is the most important modifiable risk factor of stroke. It is the second leading cause of death worldwide.
3. An ischemic stroke is occasionally treated in a hospital with thrombolysis (also known as a «clot buster»), and some hemorrhagic strokes benefit from neurosurgery. Treatment to recover any lost function is termed stroke rehabilitation, ideally in a stroke unit and involving health professions such as speech and language therapy, physical therapy and occupational therapy.
4. Prevention of recurrence may involve the administration of antiplatelet drugs such as aspirin and dipyridamole, control and reduction of high blood pressure, and the use of statins. Selected patients may benefit from carotid endarterectomy and the use of anticoagulants.
Основной идеей текста является … - Определите основную идею текста
- Определите основную идею текста
- Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
First English Newspapers
1. The first regular newspaper in England – that is, one periodically published – was started in 1622. It was called the Weekly News. Averaging twenty-two pages, this and others like it, were appropriately called news-books. Besides foreign news, which was copied from similar publications in France and Holland, they contained local information: accounts of murders, accidents, witch burnings, monsters and miracles. It wouldn't be wrong to assume that in those days the investigation of news at the source and the checking of facts must have never been part of the news-gathering procedure.
2. It was almost immediately seen by the authorities that political news was a power that could agitate the people or pacify them. So early in the 16th century press censorship was introduced in England. It was a well-exercised part of the crown's prerogative: the activities of the newspapermen were checked and the press was severely restricted.
3. In the 17th century the only periodical of any account was the London Gazette, a bi-weekly court paper. It was started as the Oxford Gazette in 1665 when the court had to move to Oxford on account of London plague, The London Gazette has come down to the present time. It carries official announcements such as acts of Parliament, promotions and appointments, etc. Most other papers of the 17th century were ruthlessly put down.
4. After the so-called Glorious Revolution of 1688 the press censorship was relaxed, being finally abandoned in 1693, and a number of newspapers came into being. In 1702 appeared the Daily Courant, the first English daily, a single-sheet, two-column small paper, printed on one side only. It must have quickly gained popularity, for soon it had to add another page, and, along with foreign news, it began to publish local information and advertisements.
Определите основную идею текста. - Определите основную идею текста
- Определите основную идею текста
- Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
LES APPROCHES DU MANAGEMENT
1. La formalisation du "management" est relativement récente. Vers la fin du xixe siècle, Frederick Taylor propose le concept d'organisation scientifique du travail qui repose sur la décomposition du travail en gestes élémentaires chronométrés et organisés rationnellement pour former une chaîne de production. Taylor désirait appliquer les principes généraux d'amélioration de la productivité par la division du travail à l'entreprise.
2. Parallèlement, Henri Fayol propose une approche similaire en comprenant que le prix des approvisionnements, la fiabilité des outils, la disposition des lieux de travail et la qualité de l'encadrement comptent tout autant que la quantité produite par l'entreprise. On parle alors d'administration moderne, qui fut alors et est toujours aujourd'hui la base de tout manuel de gestion. Il amène les concepts de systématisation du travail du dirigeant, de la prévision jusqu'au contrôle en passant par la décision. On reconnaît alors les principes de gestion : prévoir, organiser, commander, coordonner et contrôler. Aujourd'hui, on reconnaît plutôt ces termes sous le PODC: « Planifier, Organiser, Diriger et Contrôler »
3. Les approches épistémologiques de management se sont en fait grandement diversifiées. Il est possible d'approfondir l’histoire du management par la distinction arbitraire de deux modes d'approche du management qui se complètent dans les articles de détails suivants :
l'économie des organisations qui dérive de l'économie générale et la sociologie des organisations pour toutes les approches moins facilement modélisables.
4. Le management incluant ces deux domaines cherche par ce juste mélange à se rapprocher d'outils de gestion permettant d'améliorer l'organisation. Le management ne peut se réduire ainsi à la gestion des ressources humaines, mais plus globalement à la gestion de l'organisation.
Economie et science
Основной идей текста является … - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Criminal courts
1. Both criminal and civil courts in England and Wales primarily hear evidence and aim to determine what exactly happened in a case. Broadly speaking, the lower courts decide matters of fact and the upper courts normally deal with points of law. About 95% of all criminal eases in England and Wales are tried in the Magistrates’ Courts which deal with petty crimes, that is, less serious ones. In certain circumstances the court may commit an accused person to the Crown Court for more severe punishment, either by way of a fine or imprisonment.
2. Except in cases of homicide, children under 14 and young persons – that is, minors between 14 and 17 years of age – must always be tried summarily, meaning without a jury, by a Youth Court. A Youth Court is a branch of the Magistrates' Court. Indictable offences, that is, more serious ones such as theft, assault, drug dealing, and murder, are reserved for trial in the Crown Court. In almost all criminal cases, the State, in the name of the Crown, prosecutes a person alleged to have committed a crime.
3. In England and Wales, a jury of twelve people decides whether the defendant is guilty of the crime she or he is charged with. The Crown Court may hear cases in circuit areas. From the Crown Court, appeal against conviction or sentence lies to the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal. If leave to appeal is granted by that court, cases may go on appeal to the House of Lords.
Основной идеей текста является … - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Evolutionary biology
1. Evolutionary biology is a sub-field of biology concerned with the origin of species from a common descent and descent of species, as well as their change, multiplication and diversity over time. Someone who studies evolutionary biology is known as an evolutionary biologist. To philosopher Kim Sterelny, «the development of evolutionary biology since 1858 is one of the great intellectual achievements of science».
2. Evolutionary biology is an interdisciplinary field, in that it includes scientists from a wide range of both field and lab oriented disciplines. For example, it generally includes scientists who may have a specialist training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, or herpetology, but use those organisms as case studies to answer general questions in evolution. It also generally includes paleontologists and geologists who use fossils to answer questions about the tempo and mode of evolution, as well as theoreticians in areas such as population genetics and evolutionary psychology.
3. Findings from evolutionary biology feed strongly into new disciplines that study mankind's sociocultural evolution and evolutionary behavior. Evolutionary biology's frameworks of ideas and conceptual tools are now finding application in the study of a range of subjects from computing to nanotechnology. It also contributes to the field of evolutionary medicine.
Определите основную идею текста. - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
Professional titles
1. Although many kinds of people working in or studying legal affairs are called lawyers, the word really describes a person who has the right to act in certain legal matters. Most countries have different groups of lawyers who each take a particular kind of examination in order to qualify to do particular jobs. In Japan, a lawyer must decide whether he wants to take the examination to become an attorney, a public prosecutor or a judge.
2. In England, the decision is between becoming a barrister or a solicitor. Barristers specialize in arguing cases in front of a judge and have the right to be heard, the right of audience, even in the highest courts. They are not paid directly by clients, but are employed by solicitors. Judges are usually chosen from the most senior barristers, when they are appointed they cannot continue to practice as barristers.
3. Solicitors do much of the preparation for cases which they then hand to barristers, as well as doing legal work which does not come before a court, such as drawing up wills, and dealing with litigation which is settled out of court. Solicitors also have a right of audience in lower courts, but in higher courts, such as the Court of Appeal, they must have a barrister argue their client's case.
4. In general, it can be said that a barrister spends most of his time either in a courtroom or preparing his arguments for the court and a solicit spends most of his time in an office giving advice to clients, making investigations and preparing documents. Many people believe that distinction between barristers and solicitors should be eliminated in England.
Определите основную идею текста. - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Microwaves
1. Microwaves are a form of radiant energy. Other common forms are radio waves, visible light, infrared heat and electricity. All forms of radiant energy are a part of the electromagnetic spectrum. To distinguish between the forms, they are classified according to the wave length which may vary from miles to thousandths of an inch.
2. Microwaves are located in the non-ionizing portion of the energy spectrum between radio waves and visible light. The first application of microwaves was in radar during World War II. Today microwaves are widely used in communication systems, radar and many other commercial and industrial applications.
3. Significantly large segments of the population are exposed to infrared rays, visible light waves and microwaves every day. One characteristic of microwaves is their ability to bounce or deflect off metal surfaces, a characteristic basic to its use in radar. Another is its thermal or heating effect utilized in microwave cooking.
4. The difference between microwave energy and other forms of ionizing radiation, such as X-rays, Alpha, Beta and Gamma rays, is that microwave energy is non-ionizing. In other words, it does not alter the molecular structure of the item being heated. The effects of microwave energy are strictly thermal and do not cause cellular change as with ionizing radiation.
Основной идеей текста является … - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
Entwicklungsländer
1. Der gebräuchlichste Maβstab zur Messung des Lebensstandards von Staaten ist das Pro-Kopf-Einkommen oder das Sozialprodukt je Einwohner, das die Wirtschaftsleistung ausdrückt. Entwicklungsländer sind danach solche, in denen das Pro-Kopf-Einkommen nicht mehr als ein Viertel des Einkommens der Industrieländer beträgt.
2. Weil das Sozialprodukt als alleinige Maßgröße viele Mängel aufweist, müssen weitere Kriterien zur Kennzeichnung eines Entwicklungslandes herangezogen werden, z.B. Bildungsstand, technische Entwicklung, Nahrungsmittelversorgung, Arbeitslosenzahl, Infrastruktur usw.
3. Man spricht von einem Nord-Süd-Gefälle und einem West-Ost-Gefälle in der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung, weil sich die meisten Entwicklungsländer in südlichen und östlichen Teilen der Welt (Asien, Afrika, Südamerika) befinden. Äußerlichen Ausdruck fand die Konfrontation zwischen Industrieländern und Entwicklungsländern als „Nord-Süd-Konflikt“ mit der so genannten Erdölkrise zu Beginn der 70er Jahre.
4. Die Entwicklungsländer forderten eine neue Weltwirtschaftsordnung, die ihnen eine günstigere finanzielle Lage gewährleistete. Dies sind auch noch ihre heutigen Forderungen, denn bislang ist nur wenig realisiert worden. Die Forderungen werden meist im Rahmen der UNCTAD-Konferenz (Welthandelskonferenz) vertreten.
Определите основную идею текста: - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
Etiology of anorexia nervosa
1. The etiology of anorexia nervosa is unknown but appears to involve a combination of psychological, biologic, and cultural risk factors. Risk factors, such as sexual or physical abuse and a family history of mood disturbance, are best viewed as nonspecific risk factors that increase vulnerability to a range of psychiatric disorders, including anorexia nervosa.
2. Patients who develop anorexia nervosa are inclined to be more obsessional and perfectionist than their peers. The disorder often begins as a diet not distinguishable at the outset from those undertaken by many adolescents and young women. As weight loss progresses, the fear of gaining weight grows; dieting becomes stricter; and psychological, behavioral, and medical aberrations increase.
3. Numerous physiologic disturbances, including abnormalities in a variety of neurotransmitter systems, have been described in anorexia nervosa. It is difficult to distinguish neurochemical, metabolic, and hormonal changes that may have a role in the initiation or perpetuation of the syndrome from those that are secondary to the disorder.
4. Genetic factors contribute to the risk of development of anorexia nervosa, as its incidence is greater in families with one affected member and the concordance in monozygotic twins is greater than in dizygotic twins. However, specific genes have not been identified.
Определите основную идею текста. - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
The Law of Habeas Corpus
1. In the United States, Britain, and many other English-speaking countries, the law of Habeas Corpus guarantees that nobody can be held in prison without trial. Habeas Corpus became a law because of a wild party held in 1621 at the London home of a notoriously rowdy lady, Alice Robinson. When a constable appeared and asked her and her guests to quiet down, Mrs. Robinson allegedly swore at him so violently that he arrested her, and a local justice of the peace committed her to jail.
2. When she was finally brought to trial, Mrs. Robinson’s story of her treatment in prison caused an outcry. She had been put on a punishment diet of bread and water, forced to sleep on the bare earth and given 50 lashes. Such treatment was barbaric even by the harsh standards of the time; what made it worse was that Mrs. Robinson was pregnant. Public anger was so great that she was acquitted, the constable who had arrested her without a warrant was himself sent to prison, and the justice of the peace was severely reprimanded. And the case, along with other similar cases, led to the passing of the Habeas Corpus Act in Britain in 1679.
3. The law is still on the British statute books, and a version of it is used in the United States, where the law was regarded as such an important guarantee of liberty that Article 1 of the Constitution declares that “Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended except in cases of rebellion or invasion”.
Основной идеей текста является … - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
American Penny Press
1. The penny press, which emerged in the United States during the 1830's, was a powerful agent of mass communication. These newspapers were little dailies, generally four pages in length, written for the mass taste. They differed from the staid, formal presentation of the conservative press, with its emphasis on political and literary topics. The new papers were brief and cheap, emphasizing sensational reports of police courts and juicy scandals as well as human interest stories. Twentieth-century journalism was already foreshadowed in the penny press of the 1830's.
2. The New York Sun, founded in 1833, was the first successful penny paper, and it was followed two years later by the New York Herald, published by James Gordon Bennett. Not long after, Horace Greeley issued the New York Tribune, which was destined to become the most influential paper in America. Greeley gave space to the issues that deeply touched the American people before the Civil War – abolitionism, temperance, free homesteads, Utopian cooperative settlements, and the problems of labor. The weekly edition of the Tribune, with 100,000 subscribers, had a remarkable influence in rural areas, especially in Western communities.
3. Americans were reputed to be the most avid readers of periodicals in the world. An English observer enviously calculated that, in 1829, the number of newspapers circulated in Great Britain was enough to reach only one out of every thirty-six inhabitants weekly. Pennsylvania in that same year had a newspaper circulation which reached one out of every four inhabitants weekly. Statistics seemed to justify the common belief that Americans were devoted to periodicals. Newspapers in the United States increased from 1,200 in 1833 to 3,000 by the early 1860's, on the eve of the Civil War. This far exceeded the number and circulation of newspapers in England and France.
Определите основную идею текста. - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
Nanotechnology
1. Nanotechnology is the study of the controlling of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Generally nanotechnology deals with structures of the size 100 nanometers or smaller in at least one dimension, and involves developing materials or devices within that size. Nanotechnology is very diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to investigating whether we can directly control matter on the atomic scale.
2. Molecular nanotechnology describes engineered nanosystems operating on the molecular scale. Molecular nanotechnology is especially associated with the molecular assembler, a machine that can produce a desired structure or device atom-by-atom using the principles of mechanosynthesis.
3. In general it is very difficult to assemble devices on the atomic scale, as all one has to position atoms are other atoms of comparable size and stickiness. Another view, put forth by Carlo Montemagno, is that future nanosystems will be hybrids of silicon technology and biological molecular machines. Yet another view, put forward by the late Richard Smalley, is that mechanosynthesis is impossible due to the difficulties in mechanically manipulating individual molecules.
4. There has been much debate on the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology has the potential to create many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in medicine, electronics and energy production.
On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as with any introduction of new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials, and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios.
(Encyclopedia Wikipedia)
Определите основную идею текста. - Определите основную идею текста
- Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Education
1. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation. It is an application of pedagogy, a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and learning and draws on many disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, computer science, linguistics, neuroscience, sociology and anthropology.
2. The education of an individual human begins at birth and continues throughout life. Some believe that education begins even before birth, as evidenced by some parents' playing music or reading to the baby in the womb in the hope it will influence the child's development.
3. For some, the struggles and triumphs of daily life provide far more instruction than does formal schooling (thus Mark Twain's admonition to "never let school interfere with your education"). Family members may have a profound educational effect – often more profound than they realize – though family teaching may function very informally.
Определите основную идею текста. - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Cesare Lombroso
1. Professor Lombroso is a criminologist whose views, though not altogether correct, caused a lot of interest and made other people look into the problem of crime in a more scientific way. He is regarded as the father of the scientific study of criminals, or criminology. Lombroso studied at the universities of Padua, Vienna, and Paris, and later he became a professor of psychiatry and forensic medicine, a director of a mental asylum.
2. In an enormous book called The Criminal, he set out the idea that there is a definite criminal type, who can be recognized by his or her appearance. Some of what he said is difficult to believe. For example, he said that left-handed persons have a criminal instinct. Among the things he considered important were the shape of the head, colour of the hair, the eyes, the curve of the chin and forehead and if the ears stick out.
3. Lombroso's theories were widely influential in Europe for a time, but his emphasis on hereditary causes of crime was later strongly rejected in favour of environmental factors. Lombroso tried to reform the Italian penal system, and he encouraged more humane and constructive treatment of convicts through the use of work programs intended to make them more productive members of society.
Основной идеей текста является … - Определите основную идею текст
- Определите основную идею текста
- Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Solar energy
1. Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of different technologies. Solar radiation, along with secondary solar-powered resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass, account for most of the available renewable energy on the Earth. Only a minuscule fraction of the available solar energy is used.
2. Solar powered electrical generation relies on heat engines and photovoltaics. Solar energy's uses are limited only by human ingenuity. A partial list of solar applications includes space heating and cooling through solar architecture, potable water via distillation and disinfection, daylighting, high temperature process heat for industrial purposes. To harvest the solar energy, the most common way is to use solar panels.
3. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
Определите основную идею текста. - Определите основную идею текста
- Определите основную идею текста
- Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Gravitation
1. Gravitation is a natural phenomenon by which physical bodies attract with a force proportional to their mass. In everyday life, gravitation is most familiar as the agent that gives weight to objects with mass and causes them to fall to the ground when dropped. Gravitation causes dispersed matter to coalesce, and coalesced matter to remain intact, thus accounting for the existence of the Earth, the Sun, and most of the macroscopic objects in the universe.
2. Gravitation is responsible for keeping the Earth and the other planets in their orbits around the Sun; for keeping the Moon in its orbit around the Earth; for the formation of tides; for natural convection, by which fluid flow occurs under the influence of a density gradient and gravity; for heating the interiors of forming stars and planets to very high temperatures; and for various other phenomena observed on the Earth.
3. Gravitation is one of the four fundamental interactions of nature, along with electromagnetism, and the nuclear strong force and weak force. Modern physics describes gravitation using the general theory of relativity by Einstein, in which it is a consequence of the curvature of spacetime governing the motion of inertial objects. The simpler Newton's law of universal gravitation provides an accurate approximation for most physical situations.
Определите основную идею текста. - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Landscape Architecture
1. For the period before 1800, the history of landscape gardening (later called landscape architecture) is largely that of master planning and garden design for manor houses, palaces and royal properties, religious complexes, and centers of government. The first person to write of “making” a landscape was Joseph Addison in 1712. The term “landscape architecture” was invented by Gilbert Laing Meason in 1828 and was first used as a professional title by Frederick Law Olmsted in 1863. During the later 19th century, the term “landscape architect” became used by professional people who designed landscapes.
2. Through the 19th century, urban planning became a more important need. The combination of the tradition of landscape gardening and emerging city planning gave landscape architecture its unique focus to serve these needs. In the second half of the century, Frederick Law Olmsted completed a series of parks which continue to have a huge influence on the practices of landscape architecture today. Among these were Central Park in New York City, Prospect Park in Brooklyn, New York and Boston's Emerald Necklace park system.
3. Landscape architecture continues to develop as a design discipline, and to respond to the various movements in architecture and design throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. Such prominent landscape architects as Roberto Burle Marx, Ian McHarg continue today solving challenging problems with contemporary design solutions for master planning, landscapes and gardens.
Основной идеей текста является … - Определите основную идею текст
- Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Scope and importance of botany
1. In biology, plant life can be studied from different perspectives, from the molecular, genetic and biochemical level through organelles, cells, tissues, organs, individuals, plant populations, and communities of plants. At each of these levels a botanist might be concerned with the classification, structure (anatomy and morphology), or function (physiology) of plant life.
2. Historically all living things were grouped as animals or plants, and botany covered all organisms not considered animals. Some organisms once included in the field of botany are no longer considered to belong to the plant kingdom – these include fungi (studied in mycology), lichens (lichenology), bacteria (bacteriology), viruses (virology) and single-celled algae, which are now grouped as part of the Protista. Paleobotanists study also ancient plants in the fossil record. It is believed that early in the Earth's history, the evolution of photosynthetic plants altered the global atmosphere of the earth, changing the ancient atmosphere by oxidation.
3. The study of plants is vital because they are a fundamental part of life on Earth, which generates the oxygen, food, fibres, fuel and medicine that allow humans and other life forms to exist. Through photosynthesis, plants absorb carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that in large amounts can affect global climate. Additionally, they prevent soil erosion and are influential in the water cycle. A good understanding of plants is crucial to the future of human societies as it allows us to produce food to feed an expanding population, to understand fundamental life processes, to produce medicine and materials to treat diseases.
Определите основную идею текста. - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ECOLOGY
1. Ecology is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. The environment of an organism includes both physical properties, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as insolation, climate, and geology, and biotic factors, which are other organisms that share its habitat.
2. Ecology is usually considered a branch of biology, the general science that studies living organisms. Organisms can be studied at many different levels, from proteins and nucleic acids, to cells, to individuals, and finally at the level of populations, communities, and ecosystems, to the biosphere as a whole.
3. Ecology is a multi-disciplinary science. Because of its focus on the higher levels of the organization of life on earth and on the interrelations between organisms and their environment, ecology draws heavily on many other branches of science, especially geology and geography, meteorology, genetics, chemistry, and physics.
As a scientific discipline, ecology does not dictate what is right or wrong. However, ecological knowledge such as the quantification of biodiversity and population dynamics have provided a scientific basis for expressing the aims of environmentalism and evaluating its goals and policies.
4. Consider the ways an ecologist might approach studying the life of honeybees:
· the behavioral relationship between individuals of a species is behavioral ecology – e.g., the study of the queen bee, and how she relates to the worker bees and the drones
· the organized activity of a species is community ecology; e.g., the activity of bees assures the pollination of flowering plants. Bee hives additionally produce honey which is consumed by other species, such as bears
· the relationship between the environment and a species is environmental ecology – e.g., bees may die out due to environmental changes.
From Wikipedia
Определите основную идею текста - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Transmitter
1. In electronics and telecommunications a transmitter or radio transmitter is an electronic device which, with the aid of an antenna, produces radio waves. The transmitter itself generates a radio frequency alternating current, which is applied to the antenna. When excited by this alternating current, the antenna radiates radio waves. In addition to their use in broadcasting, transmitters are necessary component parts of many electronic devices that communicate by radio, such as cell phones, wireless computer networks, Bluetooth enabled devices, garage door openers, two-way radios in aircraft, ships, and spacecraft, radar sets, and navigational beacons.
2. The term transmitter is usually limited to equipment that generates radio waves for communication purposes; or radiolocation, such as radar and navigational transmitters. Generators of radio waves for heating or industrial purposes, such as microwave ovens or diathermy equipment, are not usually called transmitters even though they often have similar circuits.
3. The term is popularly used more specifically to refer to a broadcast transmitter, a transmitter used in broadcasting, as in FM radio transmitter or television transmitter. This usage usually includes both the transmitter proper, the antenna, and often the building it is housed in.
4. An unrelated use of the term is in industrial process control, where a "transmitter" is a telemetry device which converts measurements from a sensor into a signal, and sends it, usually via wires, to be received by some display or control device located a distance away.
Основной идеей текста является … - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
A forester
1. A forester is a person who practices forestry, the science, art, and profession of managing forests. Foresters engage in a broad range of activities including timber harvesting, ecological restoration and management of protected areas. Foresters manage forests to provide a variety of objectives including direct extraction of raw material, outdoor recreation, conservation, hunting and aesthetics.
2. A forester is also a title used widely during Medieval times. The forester usually held a position equal to a sheriff or local law enforcer. He was responsible for patrolling the woodlands on a lord or noble's property. His duties included negotiating deals for the sale of lumber and timber and stopping poachers from illegally hunting. Many times wanted criminals would hide in a forest. When this occurred it was the duty of the Forester to organize armed gangs to capture the criminal. Often foresters held titles of prominence in their local communities, and acted as barristers and arbitrators. Their pay was usually above average and they could make a decent living.
3. Many people confuse the role of the forester with that of the logger, but most foresters are concerned not only with the harvest of timber, but also with the sustainable management of forests to (in the words of Gifford Pinchot) "provide the greatest good for the greatest number in the long term". Another notable forester, Jack Westoby, remarked that «forestry is concerned not with trees, but with how trees can serve people».
Определите основную идею текста. - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
Realism and formalism
1. Even before the turn of the century, movies began to develop in two major directions: the realistic and the formalistic. Realism and formalism are merely general, rather than absolute, terms. When used to suggest a tendency toward either polarity, such labels can be helpful, but in the end they are still just labels. Few films are exclusively formalist in style, and fewer yet are completely realist.
2. There is also an important difference between realism and reality, although this distinction is often forgotten. Realism is a particular style, whereas physical reality is the source of all the raw materials of film, both realistic and formalistic. Virtually all movie directors go to the photographable world for their subject matter, but what they do with this material – how they shape and manipulate it – determines their stylistic emphasis.
3. Generally speaking, realistic films attempt to reproduce the surface of concrete reality with a minimum of distortion. The filmmaker tries to suggest the copiousness of life itself. Both realist and formalist film directors must select certain details from the chaotic sprawl of reality. But the element of selectivity in realistic films is less obvious. Realists try to preserve the illusion that their film world is unmanipulated, an objective mirror of the actual world. Formalists, on the other hand, deliberately stylize and distort their raw materials so that only the very naive would mistake a manipulated image of an object or event for the real thing.
4. We rarely notice the style in a realistic movie; the artist tends to be self-effacing. Some filmmakers are more concerned with what is being shown than how it is manipulated. The camera is used conservatively. It is essentially a recording mechanism that reproduces the surface of tangible objects with as little commentary as possible. A high premium is placed on simplicity, spontaneity, and directness. This is not to suggest that these movies lack artistry, however, for at its best the realistic cinema specializes in art that conceals art.
Определите основную идею текста.