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Technology
1. Technology is the usage and knowledge of tools, techniques, and crafts, or is systems or methods of organization, or is a material product of these things. The word technology comes from the Greek technología meaning craft and the study of something, or the branch of knowledge of a discipline. The term can either be applied generally or to specific areas.
2. Technologies significantly affect human as well as other animal species ability to control and adapt to their natural environments. The human species use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The prehistorical discovery of the ability to control fire increased the available sources of food and the invention of the wheel helped humans in travelling in and controlling their environment. 3. Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to interact freely on a global scale. However, not all technology has been used for peaceful purposes; the development of weapons of ever-increasing destructive power has progressed throughout history, from clubs to nuclear weapons.
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- Определите основную идею текста
- Определите основную идею текста
- Определите основную идею текста
- Определите основную идею текста
- Определите основную идею текста
- Определите основную идею текста
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Cable television
1. Cable television is a system of providing television to consumers via radio frequency signals transmitted to televisions through optical fibers or coaxial cables as opposed to the over-the-air method used in traditional television broadcasting (via radio waves) in which a television antenna is required.
2. The abbreviation CATV is often used to mean «Cable TV». It originally stood for Community Antenna Television, from cable television's origins in 1948. In areas where over-the-air reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large «community antennas» were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes.
3. It is most commonplace in North America, Europe, Australia and East Asia, though it is present in many other countries, mainly in South America and the Middle East. Cable TV has had little success in Africa, as it is not cost-effective to lay cables in sparsely populated areas. So-called «wireless cable» or microwave-based systems are used instead.
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Les nanosciences et nanotechnologies
1. Les nanosciences et nanotechnologies (NST) peuvent être définies comme l'ensemble des études et des procédés de fabrication et de manipulation de structures, de dispositifs et de systèmes matériels à l'échelle du nanomètre. Dans ce contexte, les nanosciences sont l’étude des phénomènes et de la manipulation de la matière aux échelles atomique, moléculaire et macromoléculaire, où les propriétés diffèrents sensiblement de celles qui prévalent à une plus grande échelle.
2. Les nanotechnologies concernent la conception, la caractérisation, la production et l’application de structures, dispositifs et systèmes par le contrôle de la forme et de la taille à une échelle nanométrique. Malgré la relative simplicité et la précision de ces définitions, les NST présentent plusieurs acceptions liées à la nature transversale de cette jeune discipline. En effet, elles utilisent des disciplines telles que l'optique, la biologie, la mécanique, la chimie, ou encore la microtechnologie. Les risques environnementaux et sanitaires liés aux nanotechnologies sont étudiés par la nanotoxicologie. L'application à large échelle des nanotechnologies est sujette à des questions éthiques. Les incertitudes associées aux nanoparticules et à leurs usages sont à l'étude.
3. La possibilité pour les nanomachines de se reproduire elles-mêmes, en mimant le vivant, implique également le risque d'une perte de contrôle à la suite de mutations non voulues ni prévues. La «gelée grise» est sans doute la peur la plus emblématique des nanotechnologies : un amas de nanoparticules qui, devenu autonome, voire organisé, pourrait tout détruire, y compris la croûte terrestre, pour se reproduire.
4. Toutefois, il est important de tempérer cette inquiétude, étant donné que les NST n'en sont qu'a leurs débuts. Bien que l'on ait déjà des exemples d'utilisations de ces dernières dans des produits commercialisés, elles n'interviennent pour l'instant qu'en termes de modification de propriétés de la matière ; la plupart des spécialistes du sujet considèrent que les applications des NST qui touchent aux «nanomachines» tiennent, pour le moins, du très long terme.
http://fr.wikipedia.org/
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LA THEORIE DE DEUX FACTEURS
1. Herzberg distingue deux sortes de besoins : ceux qui sont propres à tous les êtres vivants (facteurs d’hygiènes) et ceux qui sont particuliers à l’homme (facteurs internes).Les premiers (facteurs d’hygiènes) ne sont pas de véritables sources de motivation, mais simplement de satisfaction. Les besoins d’hygiène, dès qu’ils sont pourvus, réduisent l’insatisfaction et ne sont donc plus motivants. Par contre, la non satisfaction de ces besoins peut être source de mécontentement et donc de dé-motivation. Dans ces facteurs, se retrouvent les conditions de travail, les relations d’équipe, la rémunération
2. Seuls les facteurs internes sont source de motivation. Cette motivation est à rapprocher du contenu des tâches, réussite, promotion, indépendance et autonomie. Pour satisfaire ces besoins, l’homme ne se lasse pas d’en faire le plus possible, non seulement pour l’atteindre mais aussi pour dépasser l’objectif qu’il s’est fixé.
3. Pour motiver les gens à s’appliquer vraiment, Herzberg propose de leur donner un travail qui leur permette de se réaliser, qui offre donc la possibilité de faire une expérience enrichissante (variée, assez difficile, importante) et qui comporte une certaine autonomie et des responsabilités. Autrement, ils n’échapperont pas au cercle vicieux : quand ils ont peu d’intérêt pour leur travail, ils le font mal, ce qui diminue encore son intérêt etc.
4. Herzberg préconise sept recommandations comme retirer certains contrôles sans supprimer la vérification ou instituer des auto-contrôles, augmenter l’initiative, réaliser un ensemble plutôt qu’une partie. Il pense qu’il faut accorder plus de pouvoirs et plus de liberté aux employés dans l’accomplissement de leur travail, faire le point avec eux, introduire des tâches nouvelles et proposer d’acquérir une expertise, ceci en terme de responsabilisation.
http://alain.battandier.free.fr
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Deforestation
1. Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a nonforest use. The term deforestation is often misused to describe any activity where all trees in an area are removed. However in temperate climates, the removal of all trees in an area – in conformance with sustainable forestry practices – is correctly described as regeneration harvest. In temperate climates, natural regeneration of forest stands often will not occur in the absence of disturbance, whether natural or anthropogenic.
2. Deforestation occurs for many reasons: trees or derived charcoal are used as, or sold, for fuel or as lumber while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock, plantations of commodities and settlements.
3. The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity. It has adverse impacts on biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Deforested regions typically incur significant adverse soil erosion and frequently degrade into wasteland. Deforestation also causes extinction, changes to climatic conditions, desertification, and displacement of populations as observed by current conditions and in the past through the fossil record.
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History of agricultural science
1. Agricultural science began with Gregor Mendel's genetic work, but in modern terms might be better dated from the chemical fertilizer outputs of plant physiological understanding in eighteenth century Germany. In the United States, a scientific revolution in agriculture began with the Hatch Act of 1887, which used the term «agricultural science». The Hatch Act was driven by farmers' interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer. The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots, but the scientific foundation had been built.
2. Agronomy and the related disciplines of agricultural science today are very different from what they were before about 1950. Intensification of agriculture since the 1960s in developed and developing countries, often referred to as the Green Revolution, was closely tied to progress made in selecting and improving crops and animals for high productivity, as well as to developing additional inputs such as artificial fertilizers and phytosanitary products.
3. However, environmental damage due to intensive agriculture, industrial development, and population growth has raised many questions among agronomists and has led to the development and emergence of new fields. New technologies, such as biotechnology and computer science, and technological advances have made it possible to develop new research fields, including genetic engineering, improved statistical analysis, and precision farming.
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Architectural Planning
1. The natural environment is at once hindrance and a help, and the architect seeks both to invite its aid and to repel its attacks. To make building habitable and comfortable, one must control the effects of heat, cold, light, air, moisture, and dryness and foresee destructive potentialities such as fire, earthquake, flood, and disease. The placement and form of buildings in relation to their sites, the distribution of spaces within buildings, and other planning devices discussed below are fundamental elements in the aesthetics of architecture.
2. The arrangement of the axes of buildings and their parts is a device for regulating the effects of sun, wind, and rainfall. Within buildings, the axis and placement of each space determine the amount of sun it receives. Orientation may control air for circulation and reduce the disadvantages of wind, rain, and snow. The characteristics of the immediate environment also influence orientation: trees, land formation, and other buildings create shade and reduce or intensify wind, while bodies of water produce moisture and reflect the sun.
3. The choice of materials is conditioned by their own ability to withstand the environment as well as by properties that make them useful to human being. One of the architect's jobs is to find a successful solution to both conditions; to balance the physical and economic advantages of wood against the possibility of fire, termites, and mold, the weather resistance of glass and light metals against their high thermal conductivity, and many similar conflicts.
4. The control of the environment through the design of the plan and the outer shell of a building cannot be complete since extremes of heat and cold, light, and sounds penetrate into the interior, where they can be further modified by the planning of spaces and by conditioning devices. Today, heating, insulation, air conditioning, lighting, and acoustical methods have become basic parts of the architectural program.
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