Тема Изучающее чтение с элементами аннотирования
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Competition and Market Conditions
1. Competition is the economic rivalry that occurs among businesses when producers in a given industry attempt to gain a larger share of the market. Economists use the term «market structure» to describe how competitive specific industries are. Perfect competition and pure monopoly are the opposite extremes of the market structure continuum.
2. Perfect competition has many sellers of the same product, while pure monopoly has only one. Perfect competition exists when there are many buyers and sellers, none of whom control prices. In contrast, pure monopoly exists when a single firm controls the total production or sale of a good or service.
3. The most competitive type of industry is that with perfect competition. Four conditions must be present in the market structure for perfect competition to exist.
First: a particular good or service must have many sellers and buyers available. In addition, each seller must account for just a small share of the overall sales in the market. The goal of these sellers is to attract enough buyers to their businesses to earn a profit.
Second: the good or service offered by one competing firm must be similar or identical to those offered by other firms. In such a situation, buyers may choose freely from the selection.
Third: buyers must have easy access to information on the products and prices available. This information allows buyers to make intelligent choices about which goods to purchase based on price and quality.
Fourth: entrance to and exit from the industry must be relatively easy and inexpensive. In a purely competitive market structure, firms can easily enter a profitable industry or leave an unprofitable one.
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Buyers have the real opportunity to choose which goods to purchase in the industry with … - Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
Collecting agents try to recover the amount due from the taxpayers who fail to pay - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
What is a crime?
1. Crime is a part of public law — the law regulating the relations between citizens and the state. Crimes are acts which the state considers to be wrong and which can be punished by the state. There are some acts which are crimes in one country but not in another. For example, it is a crime to drink alcohol in Saudi Arabia, but not in Egypt. It is a crime to smoke marijuana in England, but not (in prescribed places) in the Netherlands. It is a crime to have more than one wife at the same time in France, but not in Indonesia.
2. In general, however, there is quite a lot of agreement among states as to which acts are criminal. A visitor to a foreign country can be sure that stealing, physically attacking someone or damaging their property will be unlawful. But the way of dealing with people suspected of crime may be different from his own country.
3. In many legal systems it is an important principle that a person cannot be considered guilty of a crime until the state proves he committed it. The suspect himself need not prove anything, although he will of course help himself if he can show evidence of his innocence. The state must prove his guilt according to high standards and there are elements that must be proved. In codified systems, these elements are usually recorded in statutes. In common law systems, the elements of some crimes are detailed in statutes; others, known as "common law crimes", are still described mostly in case law.
4. There are usually two important elements to a crime: (1) the criminal act itself; and (2) the criminal state of mind of the person when he committed the act. In Anglo-American law these are known by the Latin terms of (1) Actus Reus and (2) Mens Rea.
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In what document are usually elements of a crime detailed - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Palpation is one of the examination methods - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Package tour includes various components of a trip - Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
The ionosphere is structured in the vertical direction - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
The essence of religion is connected with question of belief - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
There are different levels in the investigation of hormones - Укажите, какой из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) содержит следующую информацию:
Summerhill is a school where children know they are loved and approved of - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Before the 19th century some social sciences were studied by philosophers - Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
The Inspector General’s Report said about the reasons of accidents - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
There are a lot of tools for measuring mercury column height - Укажите, какой из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) содержит следующую информацию:
The structural components of a personal computer - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
The Chinese navy was supplied with the most up-to-date ships in ancient times - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
A cordless telephone
1. Cordless phones first appeared around 1980. George Sweigert, an amateur radio operator and inventor from Cleveland, Ohio, is largely recognized as the father of the cordless phone. A cordless telephone is a telephone with a wireless handset that communicates via radio waves with a base station connected to a fixed telephone line, usually within a limited range of its base station (which has the handset cradle). The base station is on the subscriber premises, and attaches to the telephone network the same way a corded telephone does.
2. The base station on subscriber premises is what differentiates a cordless telephone from a mobile telephone. Current cordless telephone standards, such as PHS and DECT, have blurred the once clear-cut line between cordless and mobile telephones by implementing cell handover, various advanced features, such as data-transfer and even, on a limited scale, international roaming. In these models, base stations are maintained by a commercial mobile network operator and users subscribe to the service.
3. Cordless phones can operate without a power cord or cable attached to a fixed electricity supply such as an outlet, generator, or other centralized power source, allowing greater mobility. But unlike a corded telephone, a cordless one needs mains electricity to power the base station. The cordless handset is powered by a rechargeable battery, which is charged when the handset sits in its cradle.
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A cordless telephone is like a cord one … - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Phytoplankton obtain and cumulate energy, which is the basis for oceanic and freshwater food chains - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
Colour television
1. After World War II, the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) began demonstrating its own sequential colour system, designed by Peter Goldmark. Combining cathode-ray tubes with spinning wheels of red, blue, and green filters, it was impressive enough that The Wall Street Journal had “little doubt that color television had reached the perfection of black and white.” Thus began a long battle between CBS and RCA (Radio Corporation of America) to decide the future of colour television which resulted in abandoning the broadcasts a few months later.
2. Then, in June 1951, RCA proudly unveiled their new system. The design used dichroic mirrors to separate the blue, red, and green components of the original image and focus each component on its own monochrome camera tube. The RCA colour system was compatible with existing black-and-white sets. It managed this by converting the three colour signals into two: the total brightness, or luminance, signal and a complex second signal containing the colour information.
3. In 1952 the National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) was reformed, this time with the purpose of creating an “industry color system.” The NTSC system that was demonstrated to the press in August 1952 and that would serve into the 21st century was virtually the RCA system. It was not until the 1960s that colour television became profitable.
4. In 1960 Japan adopted the NTSC colour standard. In Europe, two different systems came into prominence over the following decade: in Germany Walter Bruch developed the PAL (phase alternation line) system, and in France Henri de France developed SECAM (système électronique couleur avec mémoire (successive colour with memory)). Both were basically the NTSC system, with some subtle modifications. These are still the standards of colour television today, despite preparations for a digital future.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)
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What influenced color television system to become profitable - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Transmitter
1. In electronics and telecommunications a transmitter or radio transmitter is an electronic device which, with the aid of an antenna, produces radio waves. The transmitter itself generates a radio frequency alternating current, which is applied to the antenna. When excited by this alternating current, the antenna radiates radio waves. In addition to their use in broadcasting, transmitters are necessary component parts of many electronic devices that communicate by radio, such as cell phones, wireless computer networks, Bluetooth enabled devices, garage door openers, two-way radios in aircraft, ships, and spacecraft, radar sets, and navigational beacons.
2. The term transmitter is usually limited to equipment that generates radio waves for communication purposes; or radiolocation, such as radar and navigational transmitters. Generators of radio waves for heating or industrial purposes, such as microwave ovens or diathermy equipment, are not usually called transmitters even though they often have similar circuits.
3. The term is popularly used more specifically to refer to a broadcast transmitter, a transmitter used in broadcasting, as in FM radio transmitter or television transmitter. This usage usually includes both the transmitter proper, the antenna, and often the building it is housed in.
4. An unrelated use of the term is in industrial process control, where a "transmitter" is a telemetry device which converts measurements from a sensor into a signal, and sends it, usually via wires, to be received by some display or control device located a distance away.
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The term transmitter … - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Heat causes the food’s surfaces to brown, giving it an attractive appearance and taste - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Load cells consist of a number of gauges, the quantity of which affects the accuracy of load cells - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
Japanese architecture
1. Japanese architecture has a long history similar to that of other aspects of Japanese culture, characterized by periods of interaction with foreign influences interspersed with long periods of isolation during which unique traits developed. Buildings of the Yayoi periods were mostly agricultural residences, with larger buildings and tombs appearing as an aristocracy developed. Wooden buildings from the Asuka period, preserved in Horyuji Temple, were built in the style of Chinese worship halls. Japanese buildings continued to follow the Chinese style of horizontal buildings with heavy tile roofs supported by timber frames, but developed unique characteristics reflecting Buddhist values.
2. During the Kamakura and Muromachi periods, the samurai expanded the compounds of the aristocracy to include living quarters for military personnel. Eventually, (daimyo) warlords built castles from which to defend their domains. During the Tokugawa era, when there were no military conflicts, many daimyo built large residences and parks in the city of Edo for their families.
3. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan began to build European-style buildings. The widespread destruction of Japanese cities during World War II cleared the way for the construction of large numbers of steel-framed, box-shaped utilitarian buildings, which provoked an adverse reaction during the 1970s, leading to a variety of new styles and architectural treatments incorporating traditional elements into modern designs. Japan’s best-known modern architects include Kenzo Tange, Maekawa Kunio, Fumihiko Maki, Isozaki Arata, and Tadao Ando. 4. Japanese architecture has influenced Western architecture with its emphasis on simplicity, horizontal lines, and flexible spaces. Frank Lloyd Wright was strongly influenced by Japanese spatial arrangements and the concept of interpenetrating exterior and interior space, long achieved in Japan by using walls made of sliding doors that opened onto covered verandas and gardens.
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Japanese warlords built castles to … - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
People should improve animal housing - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Traditional liquid-in-glass design of a thermometer is still used today - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
A certain amount of nutrient is added to food during processing - Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
Comte supposed that natural sciences passed through three stages - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
The methods of forest regeneration are multiple - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Building engineers must possess both general and specific knowledge - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
People take part in different small group during the whole life - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Various parts of a tree are connected with continuous vascular system - Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
Baby was the first computer to load a program in a temporary memory store - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Forest ecosystem balance depends on a number of factors - Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
Digital form of information carriers facilitates the expansion of information systems - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
What is law?
1. The English word "law" means various forms of behavior. Some laws are descriptive: they simply describe how people, or even natural phenomena, usually behave. An example is the law of gravity; another is laws of economics. Other laws are prescriptive − they prescribe how people ought to behave. For example, the speed limits are laws that prescribe how fast we should drive.
2. In all societies, relations between people are regulated by prescriptive laws. Some of them are customs - that is informal rules of social and moral behavior. Some are rules we accept if we belong to particular social and cultural groups. And some are laws made by nations and enforced against all citizens.
3. Customs need not be made by governments, and they need not be written down. We learn how we are to behave in society through the instruction of family and teachers, the advice of friends, etc. Sometimes, we can break these rules without any penalty. But if we continually break the rules, other members of society may criticize us, or refuse to have anything to do with us. The rules of social instructions are more formal than customs, carrying penalties for those who break them. Sports clubs, for example, often have detailed rules for their members. But if a member breaks a rule and refuses to accept any punishment, the club may ask him or her to leave the club.
4. However, when governments make laws for their citizens, they use a system of courts and the police to enforce these laws. Of course, there may be instances where the law is not enforced against someone - such as when young children commit crimes, or when certain people are able to escape justice by using their money or influence.
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What is the difference between descriptive and prescriptive laws - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Gravitation
1. Gravitation is a natural phenomenon by which physical bodies attract with a force proportional to their mass. In everyday life, gravitation is most familiar as the agent that gives weight to objects with mass and causes them to fall to the ground when dropped. Gravitation causes dispersed matter to coalesce, and coalesced matter to remain intact, thus accounting for the existence of the Earth, the Sun, and most of the macroscopic objects in the universe.
2. Gravitation is responsible for keeping the Earth and the other planets in their orbits around the Sun; for keeping the Moon in its orbit around the Earth; for the formation of tides; for natural convection, by which fluid flow occurs under the influence of a density gradient and gravity; for heating the interiors of forming stars and planets to very high temperatures; and for various other phenomena observed on the Earth.
3. Gravitation is one of the four fundamental interactions of nature, along with electromagnetism, and the nuclear strong force and weak force. Modern physics describes gravitation using the general theory of relativity by Einstein, in which it is a consequence of the curvature of spacetime governing the motion of inertial objects. The simpler Newton's law of universal gravitation provides an accurate approximation for most physical situations.
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For the Earth gravitation … - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Animals’ abdominal breathing indicates lung diseases - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Microwaves
1. Microwaves are a form of radiant energy. Other common forms are radio waves, visible light, infrared heat and electricity. All forms of radiant energy are a part of the electromagnetic spectrum. To distinguish between the forms, they are classified according to the wave length which may vary from miles to thousandths of an inch.
2. Microwaves are located in the non-ionizing portion of the energy spectrum between radio waves and visible light. The first application of microwaves was in radar during World War II. Today microwaves are widely used in communication systems, radar and many other commercial and industrial applications.
3. Significantly large segments of the population are exposed to infrared rays, visible light waves and microwaves every day. One characteristic of microwaves is their ability to bounce or deflect off metal surfaces, a characteristic basic to its use in radar. Another is its thermal or heating effect utilized in microwave cooking.
4. The difference between microwave energy and other forms of ionizing radiation, such as X-rays, Alpha, Beta and Gamma rays, is that microwave energy is non-ionizing. In other words, it does not alter the molecular structure of the item being heated. The effects of microwave energy are strictly thermal and do not cause cellular change as with ionizing radiation.
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Like X-rays, Alpha, Beta and Gamma rays microwaves … - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Universal measles vaccination is recommended - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Plastics recycling business was initiated by one of the American companies - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
The Profession of an Architect
1. The architect is a person trained and experienced in the design of buildings and the coordination and supervision of all aspects of the construction of buildings. When the architect designs a structure, he uses the cumulative knowledge of centuries. There are many consultant experts – structural engineers, services engineers and other sub-contracted specialists working to the architect's design. The architect functions now extend into town planning and work activities that need buildings.
2. Town planning or urbanism is the preparation of plans for the regulated growth and improvement of towns or the organization of land and buildings for group living. It is a cooperative process in which architects, economists, engineers, lawyers, landscape architects, doctors, sociologists, surveyors or topographers and other specialists take part. In town planning there are different street patterns: gridiron, radial, ring and functional (or organic).
3. According to the International Union of Architect (IUA or UIA) at present there are more than 800.000 fully qualified architects in the world. In the highly developed countries there is one architect per two or three thousand people. In the developing countries there is only one architect per 500,000 or 1,000,000 people.
4. The architect's sphere of knowledge is constantly expanding. He has to combine art, advanced technology, science and economics in his work. The structure an architect creates should give us pleasure, sense of beauty. The main problem facing the architect today is to avoid any conflict with nature and landmarks of bygone days.
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City planners … - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Technological advances give people possibility to chose between mass media and other communication products - Укажите, какой из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) содержит следующую информацию:
Environmental problems causing global ecological crisis - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Gore can protect from rain and wind as well - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
The Stage Model of Memory
1. Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no longer than a half-second for visual information and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory information. We attend to only certain aspects of this sensory memory, allowing some of this information to pass into the next stage - short-term memory.
2. Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the information we are currently aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory would be referred to as the conscious mind. Paying attention to sensory memories generates the information in short-term memory. Most of the information stored in active memory will be kept for approximately 20 to 30 seconds. The amount of information that can be stored in short-term memory can vary. An often cited figure is plus or minus seven items. While many of our short-term memories are quickly forgotten, attending to this information allows it to continue on the next stage - long-term memory.
3. Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian psychology, long-term memory would be call the preconscious and unconscious. This information is largely outside of our awareness, but can be called into working memory to be used when needed. Some of this information is fairly easy to recall, while other memories are much more difficult to access. The ability to access and retrieve information from long-term memory allows us to actually use these memories to make decisions, interact with others and solve problems.
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The information found in short term memory comes from … - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Equatorial forest problem is the subject matter of tropical forestry - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
History of robotics
1. The concept of robots dates back to ancient times, when some myths told of mechanical beings brought to life. Such automata also appeared in the clockwork figures of medieval churches, and in the 18th century some clockmakers gained fame for the clever mechanical figures that they constructed. Today the term automaton is usually applied to these handcrafted, mechanical (rather than electromechanical) devices that imitate the motions of living creatures. Some of the «robots» used in advertising and entertainment are actually automata, even with the addition of remote radio control.
2. The term robot itself is derived from the Czech word «robota», meaning «compulsory labour». It was first used by the Czech novelist and playwright Karel Chapek to describe a mechanical device that looks like a human but lacking human sensibility, being able of performing only automatic, mechanical operations. Robots as they are known today do not only imitate human or other living forms. True robots did not become possible, however, until the invention of the computer in the 1940s and the miniaturization of computer parts. One of the first true robots was an experimental model designed by researchers at the Stanford Research Institute in the late 1960s. It was capable of arranging blocks into stacks through the use of a television camera as a visual sensor, processing this information in a small computer.
3. Computers today are equipped with microprocessors that can handle the data being fed to them by various sensors of the surrounding environment. Making use of the principle of feedback, robots can change their operations to some degree in response to changes in that environment. The commercial use of robots is spreading, with the increasing automation of factories, and they have become essential to many laboratory procedures. Japan is the most advanced nation exploring robot technology. Nowadays robots continue to expand their applications.
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These days the application of robots is increasing … - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Early Modernism
1. With the Industrial Revolution, the availability of newly-available building materials such as iron, steel, and sheet glass drove the invention of new building techniques. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his ‘fireproof’ design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction.
2. This kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description of places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire as “Dark satanic mills”. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction, followed in 1864 by the first glass and metal curtain wall. A further development was that of the steel-framed skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan.
3. Around 1900 a number of architects and designers around the world began developing new solutions to integrate traditional precedents (classicism or Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new. The work of some of these were a part of what is broadly categorized as Art Nouveau ("New Art").
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A number of first iron mills collapsed because of … - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Not all countries require visa for entry - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Comte supposed that natural sciences passed through three stages - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Organ transplantation has been widely used in surgery since the middle of the XXth century - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
The Purpose of Education
1. Some educational theorists believe that education should serve the needs of the individual. The second opinion on the purpose of education is that education should serve the needs of the society. In industrialized nations it is common for both of these goals to be held but for different classes of the population.
2. For the elite, the needs of the individual tend to prevail, and thus upper-class schooling often tolerates diversity and encourages idiosyncrasy. For the masses, the needs of society tend to dominate, and schooling usually serves to prepare children to become obedient, well-drilled, uncomplaining workers in industry and agriculture.
3. In France and Germany, the primary purpose of education is intellectual development. In England, the primary purpose of education is character building. In Roman Catholic and Communist countries, moral or religious training is usually the primary purpose of education. Hence, every subject is imbued with religious or ideological content, and there is a constant attempt to draw moral lessons from educational material. In the United States, where large-scale immigration once brought the fear of social disintegration, preparation for citizenship and development of national consciousness have tended to be emphasized. Even today, some rituals, such as displaying American flags here there and everywhere and pledging allegiance to the flag of the United States of America at the beginning of the school day, distinguish American schools from those in most other countries.
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In the countries where education is aimed at religious training educational material is constantly used to …