Тема Изучающее чтение с элементами аннотирования
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The yield of freshwater fish varies in different places of the world - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Electrical engineering
1. Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century. The first electrical engineer was probably William Gilbert who designed the versorium: a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. He was also the first to draw a clear distinction between magnetism and static electricity and is credited with establishing the term electricity. In 1775 Alessandro Volta's scientific experimentations devised the electrophorus, a device that produced a static electric charge, and by 1800 Volta developed the voltaic pile, a forerunner of the electric battery.
2. Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. This field first became an identifiable occupation in the latter half of the 19th century after commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone, and electric power distribution and use. It now covers a wide range of subfields including electronics, digital computers, power engineering, telecommunications, control systems, RF engineering, and signal processing.
3. Electrical engineering may include electronic engineering. Where a distinction is made, usually outside of the United States, electrical engineering is considered to deal with the problems associated with systems such as electric power transmission and electrical machines, whereas electronic engineering deals with the study of electronic systems including computers, communication systems, integrated circuits, and radar. From a different point-of-view, electrical engineers are usually concerned with using electricity to transmit electric power, while electronic engineers are concerned with using electricity to process information.
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There are still different points of view on … - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
MARKETING
1. Le marketing est l’ensemble des techniques et études d’applications qui ont pour but de prévoir, constater, susciter, renouveler ou stimuler les besoins des consommateurs et adapter de manière continue l’appareil productif et commercial aux besoins ainsi déterminés.Dans le secteur marchand, le marketing sert à définir, concevoir et promouvoir profitablement dans un contexte concurrentiel des produits adaptés en permanence aux besoins et attentes de la clientèle solvable ciblée et aux contraintes de l’environnement, et à développer une relation commerciale durable avec ces clients. On cherche à augmenter la notoriété du produit, à développer l’intention d’achat et à fidéliser au maximum le client. Le produit pouvant être un bien ou un service. Les ventes de biens sont en outre de plus en plus entourées de services qui accroissent la valeur ajoutée, donc le prix de vente final.
2. Les techniques du marketing se fondent sur l’étude du comportement du consommateur. Des outils pluridisciplinaires se complètent afin de former une base solide, empiriquement fiable. La psychologie, la sociologie et la microéconomie forment un triangle en interrelation.
3. Le marketing stratégique est la démarche d’analyse et de réflexion pour réaliser l’adéquation offre-demande. Il s’agit d’un travail de long terme. Tout d’abord, il y a les actions de segmentation. Il s’agit d’identifier sur le marché des groupes de consommateurs ayant les mêmes attentes vis-à-vis du produit et devant donc réagir de la même manière à une même stimulation marketing. Ensuite, il y a les actions de ciblage. Il s’agit, parmi les segments définis à l’étape précédente d’en choisir un ou plusieurs que l’entreprise va tenter de satisfaire. Enfin vient le positionnement. Le ou les produits de l’entreprise doivent être conçus en fonction des segments dont il vise à satisfaire les attentes.
4. Le marketing opérationnel est la concrétisation sur le terrain des décisions d’orientation prises au niveau du marketing stratégique. C’est une politique de court terme, qui doit être constamment adaptée aux variations de la situation du marché. Cela se fait au travers de quatre éléments, qu’on appelle marketing mix, plan de marchéage ou quatre P du marketing opérationnel. Cette notion a été introduite en 1960 par Jerome McCarty. Il s’agit de :
· Le produit (product)
· Le prix (price)
· La distribution (place)
· La communication (promotion)
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Информация Le marketing sert à étudier les besoins des consommateurs соответствует содержанию _______ части текста - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Regular landing fields were introduced during World War I - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Wood is composed from three main matters - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Travellers use different means of transportation to get from home to the destination and at the destination - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
Modern Architecture
1. Modern architecture is the term universally applied to the style of building, which evolved a number of countries after the First World War as the International Style and which has culminated in the current design of glass, concrete and steel based on module construction presently being erected all over the world.
2. In the early 20th century an instinctive desire of architects to break away from the confusions and contrivances of the 19th century, and their efforts to introduce a style which responded to new social needs and exploited new materials led to the changed appearance of buildings; simple rectangular outlines; avoidance of symmetry; absence of applied ornament; flat roofs and white walls, resulting from the use of reinforced concrete, now the favorite material; large windows, which new structural techniques permitted, but which were encouraged also by the spirit of the times, which believed in opening up the interiors of buildings to light and air.
3. Until the 1930s, Germany was the main center of new architecture because of the presence there of a unifying institution, the Bauhaus, a college of design, which became synonymous with modern teaching methods in architecture.
4. In the years after 1945 the emphasis was on town-planning and housing. This was the era of new towns, vast housing estates. In matters of architectural style, it became less a question of conflict between period revival and modern design than between buildings designed for effect and those that aimed at the creation of a modern vernacular and a humane and harmonious environment. The Modern Movement cannot be said to have had a clear historical end. It always exited concurrently with other ways of designing.
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In the second half of the XXth century the emphasis in architecture was on … - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Metabolism
1. Metabolism is the set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of living organisms. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories. Catabolism breaks down organic matter, for example to harvest energy in cellular respiration. Anabolism uses energy to construct components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids.
2. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, by a sequence of enzymes. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy and will not occur by themselves, by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy. As enzymes act as catalysts they allow these reactions to proceed quickly and efficiently. Enzymes also allow the regulation of metabolic pathways in response to changes in the cell's environment or signals from other cells.
3. The metabolism of an organism determines which substances it will find nutritious and which it will find poisonous. For example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals. The speed of metabolism influences how much food an organism will require, and also affects how it is able to obtain that food.
4. A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways and components between even vastly different species. For example, the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms, being found in species as diverse as the unicellular bacteria Escherichia coli and huge multicellular organisms like elephants. These striking similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in evolutionary history, and being retained because of their efficacy.
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The basic metabolic pathways … - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
The state tries to curb privatized monopolies through various regulations - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
A pager
1. A pager is a simple personal telecommunications device for short messages. A one-way numeric pager can only receive a message consisting of a few digits, typically a phone number that the user is then requested to call. Alphanumeric pagers are available, as well as two-way pagers that have the ability to send and receive email, numeric pages, and SMS messages.
2. The first practical pager was introduced in 1950 by physicians in the New York City area. The first pager system had a range of approximately 40 km (25 mi) and the physicians paid 12 USD per month for the service. The actual pager device was developed and manufactured by Reevesound Company of New York and weighed approximately 200 grams (6 oz).
3. Pagers are still in use today in places where mobile phones typically cannot reach users, and also in places where the operation of the radio transmitters contained in mobile phones is problematic or prohibited. One such type of location is a large hospital complex, where cellular coverage is often weak or nonexistent, where radio transmitters are thought to interfere with sensitive medical equipment and where there is a greater need of assurance for a timely delivery of a message.
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Pagers enable people … - Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
The boy is to appear before the court next month - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Landscape Architecture
1. For the period before 1800, the history of landscape gardening (later called landscape architecture) is largely that of master planning and garden design for manor houses, palaces and royal properties, religious complexes, and centers of government. The first person to write of “making” a landscape was Joseph Addison in 1712. The term “landscape architecture” was invented by Gilbert Laing Meason in 1828 and was first used as a professional title by Frederick Law Olmsted in 1863. During the later 19th century, the term “landscape architect” became used by professional people who designed landscapes.
2. Through the 19th century, urban planning became a more important need. The combination of the tradition of landscape gardening and emerging city planning gave landscape architecture its unique focus to serve these needs. In the second half of the century, Frederick Law Olmsted completed a series of parks which continue to have a huge influence on the practices of landscape architecture today. Among these were Central Park in New York City, Prospect Park in Brooklyn, New York and Boston's Emerald Necklace park system.
3. Landscape architecture continues to develop as a design discipline, and to respond to the various movements in architecture and design throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. Such prominent landscape architects as Roberto Burle Marx, Ian McHarg continue today solving challenging problems with contemporary design solutions for master planning, landscapes and gardens.
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The landscape architecture of the 19th century is characterized by … - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Fast food is convenient because it is served usually in cartons or bags in a rapid manner - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Taxonomists deal with organisms’ differences and similarities - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
The enumeration of the early navigational tools - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Pricing Methods
1. Price is a very important weapon that can be used to persuade consumers to buy. Price is one of many factors that determine the demand for a product. What are the most common pricing methods adopted by firms?
2. Cost-plus pricing is a very simple pricing method and is perhaps the most common. A firm may calculate its average costs of producing a product and simply add a profit «mark up», say 10 %, on to average costs. This mark-up could be changed to allow for the effects of competition and economic conditions, e.g. where there is a lot of competition this mark-up may be lowered or when business is good the mark-up could be raised.
3. Marginal-cost pricing differs from the above in that the firm looks not at its average costs but marginal costs, i.e. the firm calculates the additional cost of producing the next unit or set of units of output and the firm charges a price (plus a ‘mark-up’) according to the marginal cost. A typical example is found in the shoe repair business. There appear to be no standard prices for repairing shoes. What tends to happen is that the cobbler examines the shoes and makes a quick estimate of how much material and time it will take to repair them. Larger shoes, those made of leather and those in greater disrepair have a higher marginal cost and therefore a higher price is charged for their repair.
4. Price discrimination: several firms are able to charge different prices for a similar product. This is known as price discrimination. British Rail (BR), for example, charges different consumers such as businessmen and women, children, senior citizens and students different prices and also charges different prices according to the time of journey, e.g. peak, off-peak, weekly and week-end.
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When different prices are charged for a similar product we can speak of … - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Mass immunization is one of the effective methods in diseases control - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
People’s conversation has a social meaning - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Agriculture
1. Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science. Agriculture is also observed in certain species of ant and termite, but generally speaking refers to human activities.
2. The history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. However, all farming generally relies on techniques to expand and maintain the lands suitable for raising domesticated species. For plants, this usually requires some form of irrigation, although there are methods of dryland farming; pastoral herding on rangeland is still the most common means of raising livestock. In the developed world, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture has become the dominant system of modern farming.
3. Modern agronomy, plant breeding, pesticides and fertilizers, and technological improvements have sharply increased yields from cultivation, but at the same time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health effects. Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry such as intensive pig farming have similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal cruelty and the health effects of the antibiotics, growth hormones, and other chemicals commonly used in industrial meat production.
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The development of civilization was affected by … - Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
With VoIP technology voice signals are transmitted as data packets - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
A tree and a shrub differ in height and the number of trunks - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
What is Impeachment
1. The American constitution provides that the «President and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors». Thus, impeachment is the constitutional remedy – the only one, addressed to serious offences against the system of government and the public trust.
2. Impeachment is an essentially political process. The Founding Fathers adopted this view of impeachment from English law. It’s a scope confined to political officials; it charges only «political crimes» and imposes purely «political punishments». An inquiry of impeachment examines the «undermining of the integrity of office, disregarding of constitutional duties and oath of office, arrogation of power, abuse of governmental process, and adverse impact on the system of government». Impeachment was intended to be a «safety valve, a security against an oppressive or corrupt President and his sheltered ministers». The Founding Fathers were familiar with the despotic rule a too-powerful executive could impose. Consequently, they constructed a safeguard against the executive abuse and usurpation of power that might occur in the separate executive branch. They conceived of impeachment as a means to preserve constitutional government.
3. There are three major duties imposed on the President by the Constitution and his oath of office. His first duty is «to take care that the laws be faithfully executed». The other two duties – «to faithfully execute the office of the President of the United States» and to «preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States» – are included in the oath of the office. The power of impeachment serves as a guarantee that these duties are performed.
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Impeachment is indispensible … - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Artificial biospheres are also considered by scientists - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
The approximate amount of nuclear submarines that were built since 1955 - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
The physical quality of the material of superstructure.s coating - Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
All forms of life have changed throughout a billion-year history - Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
A person’s behaviour is influenced by unconscious processes - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Natural vegetation distribution is one of the climatic type characteristics - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
The term ‘capitalist economy’ was introduced by a German scientist - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
Role of Genes versus Environment
1. Inheritance is usually not Mendelian, however, and it is difficult to distinguish the role of genes and environmental factors. Adoptees more closely resemble their biologic than adoptive parents with respect to obesity, providing strong support for genetic influences. Likewise, identical twins have very similar BMIs whether reared together or apart, and their BMIs are much more strongly correlated than those of dizygotic twins. These genetic effects appear to relate to both energy intake and expenditure.
2. Whatever the role of genes, it is clear that the environment plays a key role in obesity, as evidenced by the fact that famine prevents obesity in even the most obesity-prone individual. In addition, the recent increase in the prevalence of obesity in the United States is far too rapid to be due to changes in the gene pool. Undoubtedly, genes influence the susceptibility to obesity in response to specific diets and availability of nutrition. Additional environmental factors may contribute to the increasing obesity prevalence. Both epidemiologic correlations and experimental data suggest that sleep deprivation leads to increased obesity.
3. Cultural factors are also important – these relate to both availability and composition of the diet and to changes in the level of physical activity. In industrial societies, obesity is more common among poor women, whereas in underdeveloped countries, wealthier women are more often obese. In children, obesity correlates to some degree with time spent watching television. Although the role of diet composition in obesity continues to generate controversy, it appears that high-fat diets may promote obesity, especially when combined with diets rich in simple (as opposed to complex) carbohydrates.
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Scientists consider that the most important factor in prevention people’s obesity is … - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
The state
1. The state has an important part to play in making and enforcing law. But what is a state? It is a political unit with a territory that the international community treats as independent, for example the United Kingdom, Barbados or Japan. Law settles how the state is to be governed (its constitution), what duties it owes its citizens, and what duties they owe to one another and to it. The law of the state consists of a system of government, together with a framework for making the life of citizens more secure and for enabling them to flourish.
2. Since each state has its own system of law, there are many legal systems: the law of the United Kingdom, Barbados, Japan, etc. The laws of states differ a bit but also have much in common. Legal systems are called systems because in each state or part of a state with its own laws there are official bodies concerned with the whole of its law. These bodies – the branches of the state – are the legislature, which makes laws, the executive government, which puts laws into effect, and the judges, who decide disputes about the law. These branches of government try to see that the laws do not conflict with one another. In other words, they treat the laws as pans of a system that hangs together.
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The executive branch of power is usually represented by … - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Urban forestry is aimed at improving the environment in the cities - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
The Era of Genomics
1. In the spring of 2003, the complete sequencing of the human genome was announced, officially ushering in the genomic era. Today, gene expression profiles are being used to guide therapy and inform prognosis for a number of diseases; the use of genotyping is providing a new means to assess the risk of certain diseases as well as variation in response to a number of drugs; we are understanding better the role of certain genes in the causality of certain common conditions such as obesity and allergies. Despite these advances, we are still in the infancy of understanding and utilizing the complexities of genomics in the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of disease.
2. Our task is still complicated nowadays by the fact that phenotypes are generally determined not by genes alone but by the interplay of genetic and environmental factors. Indeed, we have just begun to scratch the surface of possibilities that the era of genomics will provide to the practice of medicine.
3. The rapidity of these advances may seem overwhelming to the practicing physician. However, he or she has an important role to play in ensuring that these powerful technologies and sources of new information are applied with sensitivity and intelligence to the patient. Since genomics is such a rapidly evolving field, physicians and other health care professionals must continue to educate themselves so that they can apply this new knowledge to the benefit of their patients' health and well-being.
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The science of genomics enables … - Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
Delta-wing aircraft are being designed which will be much more silent than current aircraft - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
These measurements are used for making clothes - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
History of agricultural science
1. Agricultural science began with Gregor Mendel's genetic work, but in modern terms might be better dated from the chemical fertilizer outputs of plant physiological understanding in eighteenth century Germany. In the United States, a scientific revolution in agriculture began with the Hatch Act of 1887, which used the term «agricultural science». The Hatch Act was driven by farmers' interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer. The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots, but the scientific foundation had been built.
2. Agronomy and the related disciplines of agricultural science today are very different from what they were before about 1950. Intensification of agriculture since the 1960s in developed and developing countries, often referred to as the Green Revolution, was closely tied to progress made in selecting and improving crops and animals for high productivity, as well as to developing additional inputs such as artificial fertilizers and phytosanitary products.
3. However, environmental damage due to intensive agriculture, industrial development, and population growth has raised many questions among agronomists and has led to the development and emergence of new fields. New technologies, such as biotechnology and computer science, and technological advances have made it possible to develop new research fields, including genetic engineering, improved statistical analysis, and precision farming.
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Agricultural science is mostly aimed at … - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
The round of duties of the city-manager - Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
The MX Revolution is the largest engineering project in Logitech’s history - Прочитайте текст и выполните задания.
Early Russian Architecture
1. Russian borrowed its early architecture, like its icon painting, from Byzantium. From the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries early towns were built on defensive sites on high river banks. From afar were visible low white walls with towers, churches with brilliant domes and bell towers. The finest examples of traditional architecture can be seen in the towns of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Suzdal, Bogolyubovo and Sergiev Posad.
2. In Russia, timber has always been the most natural building material. Russian carpenters decorate the diverse structures they were building with beautiful carved decorations above windows and porches. One can see such decorations on log-cabins, fortress towers, huge cathedrals, churches and monasteries.
3. Wooden and masonry architecture developed side by side in medieval Russia, one stimulating and gratifying the love for verticality and slenderness, the other satisfying a yearning for massiveness, monumentality, and lavish decoration in the expression of power and splendour. The few remaining examples of the ancient wooden structures are now in Rostov and also in the museums of wooden buildings in Novgorod, Kostroma and Suzdal. These examples show the skill and gift of their builders to harmonize the building proper with the landscape. Wooden architecture predominates in Northern Russia and in some of the older settlements and towns of the Siberia, such as Tyumen.
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The early Russian builders managed to … - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
The names of the wood classes are misleading - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Jet airplanes are also built from kits - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
The market-state relationship - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Police and passenger helicopters can be unpopular with urban population - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
The structure of the course of studies - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Measuring the behavior of a specific device with a monitoring instrument is applied in a calibration - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Full-scale production of helicopters started in 1942 - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
There are some research organisations which make global multidimensional weather measurements - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
Hostels are much more cheaper than hotels - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
There are different aspects of ecology studies - Укажите, какому из абзацев текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея:
There are different types of airlines